A list of the PhD students I have supervised, along a link to download their thesis, can be found below.
Click the triangle next to the title to see their Abstract.
My own PhD Thesis is here.
Design Narrative Algorithm by Abdulmajid Karanouh
Digital technology continues to play a growing role in several design
industries, including Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC).
While it assists in communicating quantitative aspects of the design intent
(the 'what'), there is a gap in communicating effectively qualitative aspects
(the 'why' and 'how'), otherwise identified as the design rationale.
Since 2002, I've worked with global firms renowned for pushing the
boundaries of design and construction; my role often involved leading
specialist teams to develop solutions using algorithmic design principles, and
communicating their underlying parametric rules from concept to realisation.
To date, there are no recognised frameworks for systematically capturing
and communicating design rationale of digital design models, including
Parametric, BIM and Digital Twin models, independently of coding syntax
and software - a research gap that this thesis identifies and addresses.
In this thesis, I explore the effectiveness of capturing and communicating the
algorithmic design rationale of digital parametric models using instructive
annotated visual narratives - a novel technique, intuitively inspired by LEGO
manuals, that I first developed in practice in an attempt to bridge this gap.
The research is first informed by literature review, including overviewing
design visual communication techniques used in various industries. I then
explore a technique that I developed and applied successfully in practice as
case study. I further test the technique through workshops and interviews,
and use their feedback to inform the development of its universal framework
- the Design Narrative Algorithm (DNA) - an algorithm-like visual process
that enables communication of design as visual narratives systematically.
The DNA is applied in practice on case studies and further developed to
output a digital application that communicates design rationale interactively.
The unique ability of the DNA framework output - an instructive interactive
annotated visual narrative - to capture and communicate design rationale in
general, and the algorithmic design rationale of digital parametric models in
particular, is the main contribution to knowledge that this research offers.
The Nature of Place : A nature-focused, place-specific, storytelling methodology for architectural innovation by Mike Tonkin
This thesis sets out a nature-focused storytelling methodology to bring about architectural innovation.
First published as a short book in 1999, the method called Asking, Looking, Playing, Making uses stories to find
archetypes of nature to create unique projects. The approach has evolved empirically over 25 years of Tonkin Liu's
practice and teaching and has developed and extended through this research. The outcome is a toolkit that offers
an integrated design process for placemaking.
The toolkit has brought nature to the fore as a primary concern and an enduring source of inspiration that leads
beyond traditional influences to bring new vitality to architecture. The methodology heightens awareness by
reprioritising society's relationship to the natural world through setting, framing, symbols and learning from
the natural world to bring people closer to nature. These strategies expand the practice of biomimicry.
Storytelling is put forward as an autonomous design vehicle that serves as a collective medium of communication
for the collaborative team. Storytelling techniques of riddle, quest, archetype, and script provide critical
direction to creative design stages. Mythical stories generate distinct design alternatives in the search for
the appropriate manifestation of form. Experimentation informs the development of a construction system as a family
of parts to become a tailor-made technical incarnation of the story.
The design methodology is informed by a diverse field of literary references that contextualise nature and
storytelling within the working processes. The approach dismantles the subject matters of our age by exploring
poetic and pragmatic design considerations. The toolkit is illustrated in diagrams to offer a systematic
architectural approach as art practice is fused into the science of methodology. The procedures within the toolkit
are set out in the Asking, Looking, Playing, and Making chapters. Invention within the methodology brings about
innovation in the project outcomes as each story challenges conventions. Focusing on the natural world within
particular circumstances leads to highly specialised placemaking. In a time of significant environmental challenge,
the hope is that this research will provide a responsive, holistic toolkit for architectural innovation.
Integration of Advanced Techniques for the Optimisation of Energy Consumption and the Mitigation of Urban Heat Island by Yasser Ibrahim
Current global urbanisation rates highlight the need to reconsider our design practices to
minimise the negative impacts of our built environments on natural resources and the health
and well-being of urban residents. The debate on the sustainability of urban form started decades ago,
underpinned by a set of environmental criteria, delineating the path for policy development to find
the optimum balance between urban density and the thermal and energy performance.
In developing countries, despite their anticipated share of global urban population, this balance
is far from being realised. In Egypt, where massive construction projects are being carried out,
the vulnerability of urban residents is mostly recognised by the gap between a drastic urban growth
and its reflection on the local construction policies, which pay very little attention to the
environmental implications of building new conurbations.
This thesis fills this gap by presenting quantitative scientific evidence on the relationship between
urban form and both thermal comfort and energy performance in buildings, in Cairo, Egypt. In doing so,
the thesis introduces a simulation workflow within the parametric design interface, Grasshopper for
Rhino3D, to investigate the impact of various urban geometry configurations on different environmental
performance criteria, studied within three key milestones. The performance criteria are outdoor thermal
comfort, represented by the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI), and the total energy loads in
buildings. First, 7716 urban street canyon configurations are studied though varying their design
parameters in three consecutive phases, to maximise outdoor thermal comfort. Simulations includes
changing 12 heights of canyon's flanks simultaneously and separately, 11 street widths, and 12
different orientations of the street canyon. The results reveal new correlations between the design
parameters and thermal comfort, showing the ability to reduce thermal stress beyond the design
thresholds of local construction codes, which reaches up to 6°C, thus highlighting the need for
climate-sensitive design regulations.
Second, 3430 typological and morphological design configurations are investigated on an urban block
scale through varying their design parameters, to find the best typology and its associated density
parameters which maximise outdoor thermal comfort and minimise energy loads.
The Role of Computational Tools in Designing Healthy Housing for the Displaced by Noorullah Kuchai
Millions of forcibly displaced people around the world are housed, often for decades, in shelters either
provided by aid agencies or self-built from designs and/or materials provided by agencies. The environmental
conditions within such shelters can be inacceptable, with extreme temperatures and very poor air quality contributing
to increased morbidity and mortality, particularly for the vulnerable. In addition, a lack of culturally sensitive design
awareness over such issues as privacy, social space and gender, adds additional stress, all for people who have already
undergone painful displacement. Anecdotally it would appear that although some of these problems might be driven by the
speed at which accommodation is provided and the restricted budget, there are additional issues, such as: (i) many lessons
fail to get transferred from one situation to the next; (ii) aid staff often have little building physics knowledge;
(iii) those designing shelters outside of the aid-sector are not aware of the psycho-social and financial aspects of
shelter provision. This latter point can lead to an attempt to design a-shelter-for-all-situations which is unlikely
to be successful, given that the cultural backgrounds of the occupants, the climate and the financial constraints will
be different in each emergency. For example, the per-shelter budget can range from 100USD to 2,000USD. This suggests
there is the need to support those working on shelter design with a well researched platform that: (i) encourages a
uniform design or tendering process that encapsulates previous lessons (such as not allowing males to see into female
areas in some cultures; or providing ventilation for wood/kerosene burning stoves); (ii) can be updated as further lessons
are learnt; (iii) produces results that are distinct to the emergency, budget and location; (iv) is supported by building
physics tools; (v) is pedagogical, in that it upskills the user in issues of shelter provision. A literature review
suggested no such platform exists. Shelter specialists in the sector were interviewed, and stated that they were both
overwhelmed by the number of seemingly innovative shelter designs available and that they had no tool or robust platforms
to help assess their relative merits or assist their design work. A pioneering survey was hence carried out to assess
the appetite for computational tools amongst humanitarian aid staff across nineteen countries. The survey presented two
new simple computational tools (both aimed at informing early-stage design thinking), one on daylight calculations and
one on estimating the carbon emissions associated with shelter provision. The work concluded that: (i) the computer-based
building-physics tools, common in normal design practice, are not used for the design of shelters; (ii) lack of the relevant
skills, time, information and software costs were the main reasons for this lack of uptake; (iii) 97% of the participants
identified a need and a desire for shelter design tools; (iv) the majority felt that the two example tools provided as part
of the survey were useful; (v) vast majority were very willing to adopt future computational tools in their work;
(vi) any such tools needed to be quick and simple to use. Further evidence of the poor environment in shelters, and the
potential impact and the importance of the use of the science of building physics in designing shelters, was then gathered
via 1,400 thermal comfort surveys of refugees and the direct monitoring of conditions in 62 shelters in Ethiopia and Djibouti,
and of the air quality in shelters across three continents. The results showed that the thermal conditions and air quality
were very poor and shelters failed most of the time (42.23% in winter and 84% in summer) to provide a thermally comfortable
indoor conditions. The investigation of indoor air quality conducted in refugee shelters for VOCs, Particulate Matter and
CO2 levels showed the presence of very high levels of pollutants (often linked to excess mortality) and extremely
high levels of CO2 (causing several respiratory diseases) and most importantly, that the indoor conditions could be
significantly improved by applying basic building-physics techniques and alteration in the shelter designs.
As a result, two additional tools were developed and tested: (i) a new thermal model of simple buildings, with minimal inputs that
presents the conditions in a shelter as a time series of temperatures for a typical summer and winter day;
(ii) a wind-load tool for the design of ground anchoring systems. In addition, a study was completed to see if Social
Network Analysis might be useful for visualising information and material flows in self-built shelters. Finally, to address
the need for a platform to aid both the design process and tendering analysis, and to upskill those providing or designing
shelters, the Shelter Assessment Matrix (SAM) was developed and tested. This addresses 34 key issues, highlighted in this
and previous research, and allows a shelter to be assessed for any location in the world. SAM also contains 23 documents
of educational information on the key issues. SAM pays equal attention to building physics the psycho-emotional and
socio-cultural aspects of housing for the displaced. SAM was tested and shown to be a suitable learning/teaching platform
for those interested in shelter projects in the humanitarian context. The potential uplift in the knowledge of users
following their use of SAM was examined via three exam-style tests administered to 72 aid workers. In addition to positive
changes in their perception of particular design aspects of housing for the displaced, an increase
(16 percentage point uplift) in their knowledge was demonstrated, which indicates that SAM might be a good alternative
teaching/learning platform. Which also suggests that the integration of SAM in the design process of shelters will increase
the knowledge of the users regarding critical shelter design aspects and it will lead to the provision of better and
healthier housing for the displaced, housing which is cheaper and quicker to build, socially, culturally and politically
acceptable, environmentally friendly, adaptable, durable and with thermally comfortable indoor environments. The consistency
of the results produced by SAM was assessed by recruiting 11 shelter experts to evaluate the performance of a shelter
design using SAM. Examining the results of the mentioned exercise, the 95% bootstrap confidence interval was CI[44.0 , 47.3]
with a mean score of 45.7 (out of 100) and the mean standard deviation across the results of nine design criteria was 0.90,
which shows that SAM reported with consistency. Moreover, the results of a contextual performance analysis of 187 previously
deployed shelters in 40 countries showed that SAM can produce statistically different results for different designs and
that the results are logical. This exercise also created the first empirically contextualised repository of information on
the performance of existing shelters around the world as an additional contribution to knowledge.
Minimising the Mass of Aluminium in Curtain Wall Facades by Adam Lee
Often, large modern buildings such as high-rise office towers are enclosed by
lightweight facades made up of prefabricated, aluminium-framed panels. Worldwide,
the mass of metal required to build these unitised curtain wall systems is in
excess of two million tonnes annually, and is increasing. Much energy is required
to release metallic aluminium from its naturally-occurring oxides, and therefore, if
these walls can be built with less metal, humanity will benefit not just because
urban development will be less costly, but also because it will be environmentally
more benign.
This thesis, in which previously unpublished research findings are presented alongside
peer-reviewed journal papers, identifies strategies that can be employed - by
architects, facade engineers and the authors of structural codes - to minimise the
use of aluminium. These guidelines are abstracted from the results of research
carried out in various ways.
Well-optimised extrusion shapes are found numerically, for tens of thousands of different
facade layouts, using a genetic algorithm linked to a parametrically-controlled
geometric model. The technique reveals that better optimisation can reduce, typically
by 20% or more, the amount of aluminium in real buildings' bespoke curtain
walls. Also, in common facade configurations, adjusting the design criteria and
locations of attachment brackets can bring further savings of 40% or more, without
affecting the wall's appearance or structural performance.
Existing structural analysis procedures are examined, errors and anomalies in the
literature are pointed out, laboratory tests expose substantial shortcomings in the
accepted idealisations, and new algebraic descriptions are proposed then validated.
National governments recognise the importance of, and are keen to enhance, the
thermal performance of facades. However, this research demonstrates that much
greater energy savings could be achieved, in buildings with curtain walls, simply
by providing design professionals with knowledge of the methods needed to make
efficient use of aluminium.
Optimising Space-frames for Construction by Antiopi Koronaki
The challenges associated with the construction of large-scale, doubly-curved
space-frame structure are significant. This research centres on the development of
a novel framework for the reduction of their construction complexity by reducing
the geometrical variability in their joints and enhancing standardisation. Conway
operators are applied to generate an extensive design-space of topologically uniform
space-frame configurations, that enables the exploration of materially efficient, and
innovative, modular layouts. A novel method for the comparison of the geometry of
their joints is then developed, that is invariant under any rotation. This serves as the
basis for the evaluation of geometrical variability in a structure and the assessment
of its construction complexity, when overlaid with the properties of different
fabrication processes. The geometry optimisation of complex, large-scale structures
is therefore enabled to reduce the variability in their members and facilitate their
construction. The parameters of the computational workflow established can be
adjusted, depending on the stage of the project in which the optimisation is carried
out, to improve its performance. This workflow therefore suggests an overall shift
of the complexity from the construction to the design process, where it can be
dealt with by the application of the advanced analysis tools developed. It facilitates
the construction of complex structures, promoting an informed application of
fabrication processes and thus generating better-engineered solutions.
Inventory-Constrained Structural Design by Aurimas Bukauskas
The design of structures using only elements available from a finite inventory, or
"inventory-constrained structural design" (ICSD), presents a challenging design and
optimisation problem which is not well addressed by conventional approaches. Improved
ICSD techniques could enable significant life-cycle impact reductions in future construction
through increased component reuse of elements from deconstructed structures, and
increased use of minimally processed low-impact whole (round) timber elements. Such
techniques could also enable more efficient utilisation of overstock structural elements and
improved design in rural and developing regions with restricted structural material supply
chains.
Conventional structural design methods are ill-suited for ICSD because they do not
allow for the consideration of inventory constraints, and do not account for the impacts
and costs associated with offcut waste. ICSD methods developed to date for whole-timber
construction have been problem-specific and do not allow for simultaneous consideration
of structural and inventory constraints. ICSD methods for steel component reuse developed
to date may not execute quickly enough for use in early-stage structural design exploration,
the project phase when the greatest reductions in life-cycle impact and improvements
in performance of new structures are likely to be achieved. This thesis first presents
novel analytical methods for simplified characterisation of the design space of a class of
ICSD problems in early-stage design. Next a new metric is introduced for comparing
the performance of inventory-constrained designs considering offcut waste. Finally, new
computational methods for ICSD are presented which allow for rapid generation of efficient
assignments of inventory elements to given structural topologies and geometries subject to
inventory and structural constraints. These methods are shown to produce assignments
approximating theoretical optima for a set of benchmark problems. The methods are
also shown to produce solutions within time intervals known to be conducive to high
productivity in creative interactive computer-aided tasks.
A design exploration procedure incorporating the above assignment optimisation
methods is demonstrated for rapid discovery and refinement of high-performing inventoryconstrained
structural topologies and geometries. The methods presented allow designers
to identify a range of feasible and high-performing inventory-constrained structural
layouts in early-stage design exploration while flexibly accommodating non-structural
considerations. The above methods are demonstrated for the design of trusses using whole
timber and trusses using reclaimed steel elements. The thesis concludes with a discussion
of potential extensions to the above approaches and their integration into structural
engineering practice in future.
Cementitious and Polymeric Materials for Aerial Additive Manufacturing by Barrie Dams
Rapid urbanisation and population growth is driving unprecedented levels of building construction.
Over the next 40 years, approximately 230 billion square meters of new floor area
will be constructed globally, a doubling of existing building stock. Already, the production of
concrete and steel accounts for a third of worldwide industrial CO2 emissions, representing
a major opportunity, and responsibility, for structural engineers to contribute towards a
low-carbon future through efficient design. A significant majority of the structural material in
a typical building exists within the floors, making these a prime target for material reductions.
This dissertation shows that thin-shell concrete floors are a viable alternative to typical
slabs and beams in multi-storey buildings. Switching the dominant structural behaviour
from bending to membrane action increases efficiency, enabling significant embodied carbon
reductions.
A system is proposed featuring pre-cast textile reinforced concrete shells of uniform
thickness and shallow depth, supported at columns, with a network of prestressed steel
tension ties. A lightweight foamed concrete fill is cast above the shells to provide a level
top surface and transfer floor loads to the shell. The structural behaviour of this system
is explored through a series of computational and experimental investigations, leading to
refinement of the design, exploration of construction methods and the development of a
complete design methodology incorporating novel theoretical work. The shells feature
optimised singly-curved groin vault geometry. This provides efficient structural performance
whilst simultaneously minimising construction complexity. Thus, a practical and scalable
solution is proposed, which is shown to offer considerable embodied carbon savings over
typical concrete and steel floor structures.
This work provides a robust platform for future refinement and large-scale implementation
of thin-shell concrete floors for sustainable buildings.
Thin-shell Concrete Floors for Sustainable Buildings by Will Hawkins
Rapid urbanisation and population growth is driving unprecedented levels of building construction.
Over the next 40 years, approximately 230 billion square meters of new floor area
will be constructed globally, a doubling of existing building stock. Already, the production of
concrete and steel accounts for a third of worldwide industrial CO2 emissions, representing
a major opportunity, and responsibility, for structural engineers to contribute towards a
low-carbon future through efficient design. A significant majority of the structural material in
a typical building exists within the floors, making these a prime target for material reductions.
This dissertation shows that thin-shell concrete floors are a viable alternative to typical
slabs and beams in multi-storey buildings. Switching the dominant structural behaviour
from bending to membrane action increases efficiency, enabling significant embodied carbon
reductions.
A system is proposed featuring pre-cast textile reinforced concrete shells of uniform
thickness and shallow depth, supported at columns, with a network of prestressed steel
tension ties. A lightweight foamed concrete fill is cast above the shells to provide a level
top surface and transfer floor loads to the shell. The structural behaviour of this system
is explored through a series of computational and experimental investigations, leading to
refinement of the design, exploration of construction methods and the development of a
complete design methodology incorporating novel theoretical work. The shells feature
optimised singly-curved groin vault geometry. This provides efficient structural performance
whilst simultaneously minimising construction complexity. Thus, a practical and scalable
solution is proposed, which is shown to offer considerable embodied carbon savings over
typical concrete and steel floor structures.
This work provides a robust platform for future refinement and large-scale implementation
of thin-shell concrete floors for sustainable buildings.
Theoretical and Numerical Investigation of the Equilibrium Shape of Curved Strips and Tapered Rods by Dragos Naicu
The bending of elastic strips and rods is a field of research that continues to offer new
possibilities for exploration. This dissertation focuses on two distinct problems within this context.
These are the search for the equilibrium shape of thin inextensible elastic strips, such as a
Mobius strip made out of paper, and the optimal shape of tapered columns that are stable against buckling.
A theoretical approach based on the principle of virtual work is used to investigate both problems.
This produces novel governing non-linear differential equations that describe both equilibrium and form.
In order to discover the equilibrium shapes, numerical algorithms are developed that are based on
Dynamic Relaxation. There are two ways in which they are used, one as an explicit form-finding tool,
and the other as a way of solving differential equations.
Results are provided that extend current theoretical models. The numerical schemes produce
three-dimensional shapes for strips, going beyond the canonical Mobius strip, and solution shapes
for tapered columns made from non-linear elastic materials.
With the aid of analytical and numerical tools, finding the form of the Mobius strip and the
tallest possible column are interesting challenges in the search for new shapes that are driven
by physical and material rules. These have applicability in structural engineering, architecture,
nano-technology and even artistic endeavour.
Current Perspectives and Future Directions of BIM Assessment Methods by Ammar Azzouz
The past century has witnessed significant developments in the field of Performance
Measurement Systems (PMSs) in a wide range of disciplines, such as business management,
engineering and computer science. Since 2007, PMSs have emerged in the Building
Information Modelling (BIM) domain, with at least sixteen BIM Assessment Methods (BIMAMs)
developed to date, in both academia and industry. The need for BIM-AMs has been
widely recognised, since they help businesses to track their progress of BIM Implementation
and compare their capabilities against other companies. But despite these recent developments,
BIM-AMs still face some fundamental challenges, in particular the way most assessments still
rely on qualitative and subjective judgements, raising questions over accuracy, practicality and
validation.
This research presents a new approach to BIM-AMs and combines theory with practice. On
the theoretical side, the thesis starts with a comparative overview of current Assessment
Methods (AMs) to explore their various characteristic including what they evaluate (projects,
organisations, teams or individuals), their range of measures and the way in which they
communicate results. On the practical side, three AMs are applied to real case study projects
in association with multiple Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) companies.
This combination of theory and practice expands and challenges what is currently known about
BIM-AMs. It offers a solid foundation to build more in-depth research on BIM measurement.
In order to optimise the current AMs, an automated plug-in is developed to measure the Level
of Detail of model elements. The automation of BIM assessment is shown to have the potential
to deliver less qualitative, more objective and practical approaches of assessment. It has the
potential to turn subjective and qualitative measures into quantifiable and objective data and
provides fast and user-friendly assessment for the AEC businesses.
The positive impact of BIM-AMs has been recognised by academics, professionals and policymakers.
Existing AMs have contributed enormously to the field of BIM assessment, but they
will only lead to sharper and more efficient businesses if coupled with automation in evaluation
and innovation in choosing appropriate measures.
Lightweight Structures for Remote Areas by Jessica Bak
The Antarctic built environment is characterised for its particular occupational regimen and includes
whole-year stations, small-scale seasonal station and refuges,and temporary field camps.
In recent years,Antarctic construction has begun to be considered of interest for the architectural
and engineering communities, and interesting efforts have been made to provide solutions for spanning building,
energy efficiency and improvements in indoor habitability.
A fascinating array of lightweight constructions can be identified, whose contribution has not,
until now, been fully documented and acknowledged. They represent remarkable examples of smart use
of structural efficiency and minimal impact strategies enduring one of the harshest environments.
This research is design-led and is motivated by the extension of the use of lightweight structures
in remote fragile areas. The research validates the concept of polar lightweight design through a
sound narrative describing the history and potential of this type of construction.
For this, this research looks at the case of the Antarctic built environment.
Furthermore, this research proposes that extension in the use lightweight construction could
offer a sustainable solution for the predicted increase in the number of settlements being
established in Antarctica. Knowledge and solutions achieved in this context can also be applied
in other less demanding and fragile scenarios.
In this regard, advanced computational design tools have been extensively validated for the
realisation of structural surfaces of high geometrical complexity. Parametric design tools,
are of particular interest to this research, as they allow the optimisation of a structure,
either as a whole, or via its physical components. This research proposes that such tools can
be employed for the development of Polar lightweight systems of larger scale and more complex
configurations than currently seen.
The first part is dedicated to the documentation and systematic characterisation of the
vernacular Subantarctic and Antarctic lightweight constructions as structural systems.
In the second part, the integration of polar constraints in the design of a generic lightweight
structural system using parametric design tools is developed, in order to demonstrate the
potential of this field for the creation of novel design methods and solutions.
The particular case of a new medium-scale seasonal station is used as a case-study.
Strategies for Parametric Design in Architecture: An Application of Practice Led Research by Roly Hudson
A new specialist design role is emerging in the construction industry. The primary task
related to this role is focused on the control, development and sharing of geometric
information with members of the design team in order to develop a design solution.
Individuals engaged in this role can be described as a parametric designers. Parametric
design involves the exploration of multiple solutions to architectural design problems using
parametric models. In the past these models have been defined by computer programs,
now commercially available parametric software provides a simpler means of creating these
models. It is anticipated that the emergence of parametric designers will spread and a deeper
understanding of the role is required.
This thesis is aimed at establishing a detailed understanding of the tasks related to this new
specialism and to develop a set of considerations that should be made when undertaking
these tasks. The position of the parametric designer in architectural practice presents new
opportunities in the design process this thesis also aims to capture these.
Developments in this field of design are driven by practice. It is proposed that a generalised
understanding of applied parametric design is primarily developed through the study of
practical experience. Two bodies of work inform this study. First, a detailed analytical
review of published work that focuses on the application of parametric technology and
originates from practice. This material concentrates on the documentation of case studies
from a limited number of practices. Second, a series of case studies involving the author as
participant and observer in the context of contemporary practice. This primary research
of applied use of parametric tools is documented in detail and generalised findings are
extracted.
Analysis of the literature from practice and generalisations based on case studies is contrasted
with a review of relevant design theory. Based on this, a series of strategies for the
parametric designer are identified and discussed.
Design Narrative Algorithm